2.+Language&Linguistics-Nakia&+Yesenia

=        Chapter 2           Language & Linguistics Foundations              By Nakia R and Yesenia F.          = =        = 
 * Introduction**

Learning a new language is a complex process. While maintaining a native language can be a struggle, each child brings their own set of knowledge and cultural norms to the classroom. These factors should be incorporated in every facet of their education in order to facilitate optimal learning. Research supports that children need to develop their native language to successfully construct meaning in their second language. It is important for the child's family, community and school to be involved so that the child becomes successful. Given the diversity of language and speech styles, a child's capacity to learn a new language relies heavily upon their use and understanding of the L1. The research articles below help us to understand how teachers can be culturally-responsive and use various techniques to best accommodate the needs of the child.


 * Main Points**

1. Learning language is a process that takes many years. Language development begins when a child is born. As the child grows, they begin to understand language - little by little the child will gain meaningful knowledge about the world in which they live in. There are many factors that affect a child’s learning such as family, community, and school. The environment plays a highly important role in learning to speak. Language development in the early stages depends crucially on vocabulary knowledge. The more words that children know the better they will learn to speak and the better their chances of doing well in school however there are also factors that influence learning a new language such as the school’s curriculum, media, peers etc. (YF)

2. Teachers should learn about different cultures and value diverse dialects of other languages. It is important for teachers to know how written language contrasts with speech in order to help students acquire literacy. Teachers must have enough knowledge of grammar to support children’s writing development, identify problems in writing and decoding a text. Teachers are encouraged to design instructions or lessons that involve reading and writing activities such as translations, journal writing, spelling etc that will enhance a child’s language skills and writing skills. Students should be given opportunities to write and receiving corrective feedback that will help them become better writers. (YF)

3. Language use at home among immigrant families has been an area of study for many researchers. Typically small children of immigrant families start out by speaking their parents’ language at home and after they begin school, they gradually switch to English, which generally becomes dominant however it is normal for children exposed to multiple languages to take slightly longer to begin speaking. Researchers found out that many families had difficulties maintaining the heritage language at home because the emphasis toward English in the American society. This often resulted in many ELLs losing their ability to speak their native language, this can be also known as language loss. Language loss is when the child losses his/her native language but gain a second language that is influenced by many factors that surrounds the child language development. (YF)

4. Teachers need to know how aspects of oral and written language affect literacy. Oral language proficiency develops first in the native language, which serves as the foundation for literacy. Teachers need to know how written language and oral language relate to one another so that they can help their students acquire literacy. Effective vocabulary instruction requires that teachers understand how words are learned in a non-instructional contexts through conversation and reading. With teachers’ help, students can use well-written, grade-appropriate texts to learn content-area knowledge—as well as the vocabulary, grammatical structures, and rhetorical devices associated with academic writing. (YF)

5. There are a broad range of communication styles and patterns among and across cultural groups. While some ethnicities use similar gestures to express their feelings, some styles or habits are specific to one's culture. It is important to be culturally-adaptive to different types of emotions, i.e. eye contact, gestures, directness/indirectness, and other expressions to facilitate the most effective communication. As with gestures, language may have differences in tone, pitch, emphasis and pronunciation of words based on cultural norms. (NR)

6. Evidence shows that second-language acquisition does not take away any skills from the learner. In fact, knowledge of more than one language helps to broaden one’s conceptual and cognitive abilities. A student’s progression, or lack thereof, in any program (be it bilingual, ESL or mainstream) can be effected by the instructor’s beliefs about culture and language. (NR)

7. Incorporating the home language into the education of a child plays a crucial role in their overall development. Every child brings their own set of knowledge and skills to the classroom, therefore they need to be able to expand upon these wisdoms to promote academic success. Language socialization helps us to understand how language is acquired and used in different cultural environments. (NR)

8. Research supports that the sociocultural context in which a student is schooled in is equally important to students' long-term success in English. It should be understood that the language learning process is different for each child (or adult). Some ELLs learn most effectively through small group interactions or cooperative learning sessions while others learn best via individual tutoring or one-on-one instruction. It should not be assumed that children are sufficient or fluent in a language based on their oral skills when they often exhibit a "linguistic facade." It is common for ELLs to exercise BICS when speaking (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills) but this does not mean that they're prepared for general ELA classes. (NR)


 * Annotations and Links**

1. Collier, V. (1995). Directions in Language & Education. National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education. Vol. 1, No. 4. George Mason University. Retrieved on September 25, 2008 from: http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/directions/04.htm The author examines need for teachers to know about second-language acquisition in public schools. Although legal action exist to provide a "meaningful education" for language minority students (Lau v. Nichols, 1974), public schools nationwide are still grappling with effective bilingual-education or ESL methods. The lack of consensus regarding these issues is largely due to cultural and linguistic biases on a hierarchal level with strong political and financial factors. To challenge this, a conceptual model (consisting of four major components: Sociocultural, linguistic, academic, and cognitive processes) has been introduced to make the language-acquisition process more balanced in addressing the whole child. It provides instructional support specific to the students’ aptitude (often demonstrated in their first language) without devaluing their different skills and norms. It also encourages parent involvement on a consistent basis for closer home-school cooperation. (NR)

2. De Houwer, A. (July 1999) Two or More Languages in Early Childhood: Some General Points and Practical Recommendations. University of Antwerp and Science Foundation of Flanders, Belgium. Retrieved September 24, 2008 from: http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/earlychild.html This article discusses ways in which parents can help their children control and develop their native languages. Many people have strong valuable ideas about children growing up with a second and third language. However, others think that it can lead the child to feeling confused and isolated from the environment. Speech therapists and medical doctors advise parents of young children growing up with more than one language to stop using one of those languages with their children because they claim that hearing two or more languages will confuse the child and lead to critical problems in acquiring language. However, Houwer claims that there is no scientific evidence that hearing two or more languages can lead to delays or disorders in language acquisition. In this article, Houwer offers helpful advices to parents so that they can help their children control the languages that they are exposed at home and at school. (YF)

3. Elliott, C. E. (1999). Cross-Cultural Communication Styles, pre-publication Masters thesis. Multicultural Health,Department of Human Resources etrieved on September 24, 2008 from http://www.awesomelibrary.org/multiculturaltoolkit-patterns.html This article analyzed the speech patterns of African-Americans, European-Americans, Asian-American & Hispanic or Latino Americans. It appears that each group has some distinct characteristics in respect to speech patterns and body language when communicating. For instance, African-Americans tend to use more direct eye contact and hand gestures to accentuate their point of view while European-Americans tend be hyperbolic when speaking directly about certain things. I found it interested that Asian-Americans tend to be more restrained when speaking (i.e. keeping gestures close to the body) similar to how Latin-Americans are often more low-key when communicating. (NR)

4. Fillmore, L. W. & Snow C. (November 2000) What Elementary Teachers Need To Know About Language. Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics, Online Resources: Digests. Retrieved on September 24, 2008 from: http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/0007bredekamp.html This article discusses the importance about how language and literacy affects children’s way of learning. In order to teach language and literacy effectively, the article suggests that teachers should learn valuable information to enhance children’s level of reading, writing, speaking and listening using various methods, materials and approaches for helping students succeed. Teachers need to be aware of how literacy should be taught to ELLs. One basic element that teacher should know is that the knowledge that a child has comes from the native language serves as the foundation for literacy. Teachers must have a solid knowledge of grammar to support children’s writing development. The article claims that teachers need access to a wide range of meaningful information to help students succeed, including information about the language that many of their students are learning. Teachers need a thorough understanding how language figures in education. (YF)

5. Hancock, Z. (2002) Heritage Spanish Speakers' Language Learning Strategies. Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistic, Online Resources: Digests. Retrieved September 24, 2008 from: http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-3/spanish.htm Hancock discusses factors affecting heritage Spanish speakers learning of Spanish. Heritage speakers are those students who were born in the US or immigrated at a young age. These students are immersed in a bilingual world and often are not taught Spanish formally. The factors that affect heritage speakers are: Varieties of Spanish (the belief that some dialects of Spanish are inferior to a formal Spanish language), Cultural Connections (there might be students who work better in groups or as individuals, learning styles differ and should be considered in designing instructions) and non-native Spanish Teachers (where the student may not identify culturally with the teacher, which may affect their academic success). Hancock also discusses useful six language learning strategies for teaching Spanish to native or heritage Spanish speakers. These strategies focus cognitive, metacognitive, memory-related, compensatory, affective and social areas. Some strategies are guided by exterior influences--teachers, activities, interactions--and others relate to the student's personality, motivation, and knowledge about how to learn. (YF)

6. Hirapetian, M. (2007) Barriers in the Family. Los Angeles, CA: UCLA- Center for World Languages. Retrieved September 24, 2008 from: http://www.lalamag.ucla.edu/features/article.asp?parentid=61059 Based on a true story, this immigrant family that struggle to communicate with their youngest daughter, Vera, who only developed the English language. Janet Oh, a psychologist explains how young children of immigrants typically start out speaking their parents’ language at home and after they begin school, they gradually switch to English. In some case when society pushes English only, then language loss is inevitable. Oh suggests that parents maintain the native language at home. (YF)

7. MacLaughlin, B. (1992). Myths and Conceptions About Second Language Learning: What Every Teacher Needs To Unlearn. Educational Practice Report: 5. University of Santa Cruz, California http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/ncrcdsll/epr5.htm This paper attempts to debunk some common held myths about second-language acquisition. Newcomer’s second language acquisition success depends greatly upon the educator’s ease, compassion and support. It is a myth that all children learn the same way and that some may more inclined to master a new language due to their age or first language. The mainstream teacher must be considerate of the ELLs progress from ESL instruction to all English programs which lack support in the home language. The use of the home language in bilingual classrooms allows the ELL to avoid falling behind in schoolwork, and it also provides a reinforcing bond between the home and school. In fact, bilingual proponents argue that home language acts as a bridge for children, enabling them to participate more effectively in various activities the while learning English. If the bilingual teacher incorporates the child's native language and culture, he or she can apply various techniques to expend upon their knowledge base. ESL and mainstream teachers must understand this. (NR)

8. Park, S. & King, K. (2003). Cultural Diversity and Language Socialization in the Early Years. New York University & Georgetown University. Retrieved September 25, 2008 from: http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/0313park.html This article examines how children develop linguistic and "cognitive skills" though interactions with family and other community members. This helps to shape their perspectives on cultural and linguistic norms, most of which are carried over into the formal school years. One of the biggest issues with regard to bilingual education in public schools is that ELLs are often labeled deficient or remedial due to having different cultural values and norms. This often results in lowered self-esteem and motivation for ELL student as he or she may feel like their very essence is inadequate. The importance of child-centered language rich contexts are suggested in order to decrease student's stress in schools -- educators need to acknowledge that there are multiple ways to communicate and interact using language. This will help ELLs increase their self-esteem & push them towards higher academic achievement. (NR)

9. Valdés, G. (N/D) Multilingualism. Washington D.C: Linguistic Society of America. Retrieved September 24, 2008 from: http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fieldsmulti.cfm The article discusses the differences between being a bilingual or multilingual individual. The concept of being ‘Bilingual’ has evolved over the years. Bilingualism has a wide variety of meanings. Many people believe that being bilingual has its advantages while others believe that being bilingual has its disadvantages. When people hear the term “bilingual” many imagine that it is a person who can speak two languages perfectly and equally. Others believe that being 'truly' bilingual is a person who can speak, understand, read, and write in two languages fluently but for others, the term bilingual means something very different. The phrase “bilingual children” is often used as an inoffensive term for 'poor' and 'uneducated' immigrant children. This article shows how bilingual individuals are categorized by their linguistic ability. (YF)

10. Bilingual Families Perth. (2003). Bilingual Families: Perth. Mount Hawthorn WA, Australia. Retrieved September 24, 2008 from: http://www.geocities.com/bilingualfamilies/bilingualism.html (YF)

11. Collier ,V. (1995) Acquiring a Second Language For School. George Mason University: Directions in Language & Education National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education Retrieved September 28, 2008 from: http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/directions/04.htm (NR)

12. Coltrane, B. (2003) Working With Young English Language Learners: Some Considerations. Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistic, Online Resources: Digests. Retrieved September 24, 2008 from: http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/0301coltrane.html (YF)

13. NWREL. (2003) Overview of second language Acquisition Theory. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory Retrieved September 28, 2008 from: http://www.nwrel.org/request/2003may/overview.html (NR)

14. USA Today. (2005) Project Seeks To Preserve World's Dying Languages. Washington: USA Today Retrieved September 24, 2008 from: http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-08-10 languages_x.htm?csp=34 (YF)

15. Walqui A. (2000) Contextual Factors in Second Language Acquisition. San Francisco, California: Online Resources: Digests Retrieved September 28, 2008 from: http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/0005contextual.html (NR)